Varanasi : The Eternal City

The holy city of Varanasi, known as the city of temples and learning , is a place of great historical and cultural importance. This religious capital of India is situated on the banks of the holy river Ganges and is presided over by Lord Shiva. It is the heart of India and an epitome of the synthesis of cultures, religions and races. The river-front of the city is decorated by hundreds of well built ghats which is a unique feature. The holy Buddhist place, Sarnath is in its precincts . Varanasi is the premiere most place of oriental learning. Simultaneously it is keeping pace with modern advanced knowledge. It has three universities .one Tibetan Institute and an Institute of Arabic Studies. The city is reputed for silk fabrics, perfumes, artistic brass and copper wares and a variety of handicrafts. It is an important centre of literature, art and culture. It has produced great poets. writers, musicians and scholars. This vibrant city of joy knowledge and liberation has a magnetic attraction for people all over the world.

GETTING AROUND

Varanasi is well connected both by air and rail with all the important places of India . Its distance from Delhi is about 700 Kms. The Railway Station is about 10Kms. and the airport about 32 Kms. from the University. The city is relatively free from the menace of pollution. Its weather varies from 400 C in summer (May-June) to 50 C in winter (December-January). During the major part of the year the city has a temperate climate The city is very hospitable. It has a large number of 4 and 3 Star hotels and moderately cheap lodgings.All kinds of food are available here..

HOW TO GET THERE

Varanasi is well connected by air, rail and road.

AirRegular service connects Varanasi with cities as Delhi, Lucknow, Jaipur, Khajuraho, Calcutta, Bombay, Bhubaneswar and Katmandu. Varanasi is on several Indian Airlines flights including the popular daily tourist shuttle Delhi/Agra/Khajuraho/Varanasi and back. Sahara Airlines also has flights to Calcutta, Mumbai and Lucknow. Jet Airways operates flights to Delhi and Khajuraho. The airport at Babatpur is about 22 km away from the city.

RailVaranasi is major rail junction. Several trains a day come to Varanasi from both Kolkata and Delhi. The city is linked by trains with all metros and major cities across the country - New Delhi (760 Kms), Mumbai (1509 Kms), Calcutta (735 Kms), Madras (1970 Kms), Lucknow (286 Kms), Allahabad, Patna, Jaipur, Gorakhpur and Khajuraho.. There are not many trains running directly between here and Delhi or Calcutta but most Delhi to Calcutta trains do pass through Mughal Sarai, 18 km south of Varanasi.

RoadVaranasi is connected with Calcutta (677 Kms.), Delhi (765 Kms.), Madras (1901 Kms.), Bangalore (1763 Kms.) Varanasi is very well connected by a network of roads and road transport to all major towns of Uttar Pradesh and surrounding areas.There are buses running from Varanasi to Jaunpur, Allahabad, Lucknow, Faizabad, and Gorakhpur.

Ghats

The city's life revolves around its seven km long sweep of about 100 bathing ghats that skirt the west bank of the Ganges. Most of them are used for bathing. Some are used for cremating bodies. The most sacred ghats are the Asi, Dasashwamedh Ghat, Manikarnika and Panchganga. Pilgrims who bathe in each one consecutively believe their prayers will be fulfilled. A short boat trip from Manikarnika Ghat can be an interesting introduction to the river. It is believed that cremation at Manikarnika ghat ensures a safe place in Heaven, as the cremators of this ghat are believed to have the patronage of Shiva. The furthermost upstream ghat is Assi Ghat, which marks the confluence of the Ganges and the Assi rivers. It is said that after striking down demon Shumbha and nishumbha, Durga's sword fell and created a curved ditch, which later became the Assi Channel. This Ghat is one of the five special ghats which pilgrims are supposed to bathe at in sequence during the ritual route called ' Panchatirthi Yatra' ending in the Adikeshva ghat in the north. Nearby is the Tulsi Ghat, where Goswami Tulsidas lived till his death in 1623A.D. The Bachra Ghat is used by Jains and there are three riverbank Jain Temples. The Dandi Ghat is used by fakirs , yogis and ascetics and nearby is the very popular Hanuman Ghat. Dashashvamedh Ghat, Varanasi's liveliest bathing place was constructed by Peshwa Balaji Baji Rao. It's name indicates that Brahma sacrificed (medh) 10 (das) horses (aswa) here. It's one of the most important ghats and is conveniently central. Nearby is the grand Man Mandir Ghat (1637) and an observatory both built by Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur in 1710. Mir Ghat leads to a Nepalese temple, which has erotic sculptures. Dattatreya Ghat bears the footprint of the Brahmin saint of that name in a small temple nearby. The Ram Ghat was built by the Raja of Jaipur. Panchaganga Ghat, where India's five holy rivers are said to merge. The Trilochan Ghat has two turrets emerging from the river, and the water between them is especially holy. Another important cremation ghat is the Hirishchandra ghat, named after the king Harishchandra who worked as a cremator at the cremation grounds.

The best time to visit the ghats is at dawn when the river is bathed in a magical light and pilgrims come to perform puja to the rising sun. The best view of the Ghats can be had from a boat midstream or from the Malviya bridge. Burning pyres, people getting their hair shaved off, the chanting of sacred slokas, giving of alms to Brahmins, Pandas (Brahmin Priests) sitting under huge umbrellas offering prayers for their clients, devotees praying and drinking water from the holy river are the common sight at these ghats.

Sarnath

The Buddha came to this hamlet, 10 Km. north-east of Varanasi, to preached his message "Maha-Dharma-Chakra Pravartan" (in Buddhist terminology, 'turned the wheel of the law') after he achieved enlightment at Bodhigaya. Later, the great Buddhist Emperor Ashoka built here the Dharmarajika Stupa and near it erected a pillar surmounted by the magnificent capital of four adored lions, which today forms the national emblem of India. Ashoka erected several memorial towers or stupas.

Saranath probably derived its name from one of Buddha's title, Saranganath, Lord of the Deer. The Chinese Buddhist pilgrims, Fa-hsien and Hiuen Tsiang who visited in the 5th and 7th centuries respectively, both recorded impressions of their stay. The huge swastika (110ft) covered Dhameskh Stupa dates from AD 500 and is thought to mark the place where Buddha gave his sermon. Sarnath has been a premier centre for Buddhism. It is a rich collection of ancient Buddhist relics and antiques comprising numerous Buddha and Bodhisatva images on display at the excellent Archaeological Museum (open 10am to 5pm except on Friday).

Saranath's annual festival is Buddha Purnima, which commemorates Buddha's birth with colourful fair and procession of his relics held on the full moon of May/June. RamnagarThe residential place of Kashi Naresh (Former Maharaja of Varanasi) across the Ganges at Ramnagar houses a museum with the exhibits of palanquins, costumes, swords, sabres, etc. Dussehra celebration of Ramnagar is an interesting event to witness.14 km. from Varanasi. The fort at Ramnagar houses a museum displaying the Royal collection which includes vintage cars, Royal palkies, an armoury of swords and old guns, ivory work and antique clock. The Durga Temple and Chhinnamastika Temple are also located at Ramnagar.

Fort and Palace

Chunar Fort

The Chunar fort is situated 40 Km. from Varanasi. Chunar Fort, overlooking the Ganges, has had a succession of owners representing most of India's rulers over the last 500 years. Sher Shah took it from Humayun in 1540, Akbar recaptured it for the Mughals in 1575 and in the 18th century it passed to the nawabs of Avadh. They were shorty followed by the British, whose gravestones here make interesting reading. Chunar sandstone has been used for centuries, most famously in Ashokan pillars - and is still quarried, leaving the surrounding hills looking ravaged in places.

Ram Nagar Fort and Palace Ramnagar Fort which was built in 1750A.D by the Maharaja of Banaras, is on the right bank of River Ganga. Built of red stones, it provides strength and stability to the city. Visit : Daily from 0900 t0 1200 and 1400 - 1500. It is the residential palace of the former Maharaja of Varanasi. The palace is an astronomical and astrological wonder. Inside the giant walls of the palace, there is a big clock. Besides showing year, month, week and day, it baffles the onlooker with astronomy of the sun, moon and constellation of stars. This wonder clock or Dharam Ghari was made by the court astronomer of Banaras in 1852A.D. The palace has a temple dedicated to Ved Vyas and a museum set up by the last Maharaja of Banaras, Vibhuti Narain Singh. The museum has a collection of brocade costumes, palanquins, weapons and has expensive coaches made of ivory. The palace is decorated majestically and it vibrates with colour and life, during Dussehra festival. The celebrations comes to an end on Vijayadashmi, when the huge effigies of demon king Ravana and his kinsmen are sent up in flames, signifying the victory of good over evil.

ABC Art Gallery This gallery is situated opposite of Tulsi Manas Mandir, Durga Kund Road. Opens from 1500 to 1900. Entry - free. This gallery exhibits the work of well known artists of India. It gives a picture of the contemporary culture of Varanasi.

B.H.U. & Bharat Kala Bhavan Museum Banaras Hindu University (B.H.U) founded by Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya in 1917A.D is the largest residential University in India. At the entrance, there is the grand statue of its founder and the Vishwanath temple in its centre. The huge temple was built in 1966, under patronage of the Birlas. It has a 677 meter high rising white top and its well carved architecture attracts pilgrims. In the cool and calm surroundings of B.H.U is the Bharat Kala Bhavan which has established in 1920A.D and has a vast collection of paintings, Hindu and Buddhist sculptures and other materials of archeological studies. In the main hall of the Bhawan, there is a figure of a man standing on one leg and one hand on his hip and lifting a mass of stone above his head, with one hand. The figure is said to be of Lord Krishna lifting Govardana. In the halls of the Bharat Kala Bhawan, there are many rare images that testify to the existence of Krishna cult in Kashi in 15th and 16th century Gupta period. It has the miniature paintings from the courts of Mughals and the Hindu Princes of Punjab Hills. Visit : Monday to Saturday . Opens from 1030 to 1600. Entry - free.

Ashoka Pillar It is at Saranath, 10km north of Varanasi. Sarnath, the place where Buddha gave his first sermon is a popular Buddhist pilgrimage centre. The Ashoka pillar stands in front of the main stupa where Ashoka sat and meditated. The Sarnath Archaeological Museum at Ashoka Marg, houses a copy of Ashoka's lion pillar and some sculptures. Temples and Mosques

Vishwanath temple (Golden Temple)

The most sacred temple in Varanasi is the Vishwanath temple, located at Vishvanath Gali dedicated to Lord Shiva. Hindus believe Shiva lives here, so it's far too holy a place for non-Hindus to view, the followers of other religions are permitted a view from the Naubat Khana (seat of temple choir). The shivalinga at the Vishwanath temple is among one of the 12 Jyotrilingas. The current temple was built in 1776 by Ahalya Bai of Indore with about 800 kg of gold plating on the towers, which gives the temple its colloquial name, Golden Temple. The gold plated spire, was the gift of the Sikh Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Lahore in 1835, more than 50 years later. The well of wisdom or 'Gyan Vapi' which is nearby is believed to have been built by Lord Shiva himself to cool the 'linga' of Vishwanath with water.

Durga Temple

It was built in the 18th century by a Bengali maharani and is stained red with ochre. The Durga Temple is commonly known as the Monkey Temple due to the many frisky monkeys that have made in their home. Non-Hindus can enter the courtyard but not the inner sanctum.

Kedareshvara Temple It is the most important Shiva temple of the city. The stone linga here is said to have emerged spontaneously. The myth narrate that a pure hearted devotee of Shiva prayed for a chance to visit the famous Kedareshvara Shiva temple in the Himalayas. Shiva, who is the god of destruction is always kind to his bhaktas (devotees). Shiva was touched by his bhakta's piety and instead of bringing him to the mountain, Shiva brought his image to the bhakta. This image (linga) emerged out of a plate of rice and lentils. It can be still seen by the believers on the rough surface of the natural stone linga.

Sankat Mochan Temple It is at Durga Kund Road. The word Sankat Mochan means deliverer from troubles. The temple belongs to Hanuman (monkey God), an incarnation of Vishnu. The best time to visit this temple is in the early evening.

Shitala Temple This white temple is dedicated to Shitala, the smallpox goddess. It is situated at Shitala Ghat. The Santoshi Mata (Mother of Contentment) shrine is added to this temple.

Chausath Yogini Temple This temple is situated just above the Chausath Yogini Ghat. It was originally devoted to a tantric cult. Now it is devoted to Kali. The deity here is known as 'Ma' (mother).

Gyanvapi Mosque This mosque was built by Mughal emperor Aurangazeb. The foundation and the rear part of the mosque are the remains of a temple. One of its minarets which dominated the skyline of the holy city, collapsed in the1948 floods.

Alamgir Mosque This mosque was constructed by Aurangazeb. It is a blend of Hindu and Muslim designs. A famous bathing point, Panjaganga Ghat lies below it.

Amarnath Yatra

The holy Amarnath cave, a natural splendour is located at 3888 mts (13,500 ft.). The holy cave, in which “Ice Lingam” is formed, is 120x100x60 ft. in diameter and can accommodate thousands of worshipers. According to a legend Lord Shiva had chosen this cave to reveal to Goddess Parvati the secrets of life and death.

Although the holy Amarnath cave is located in the Sindh Valley besides Amarnath (Amravati) a small tributary of the Sindh River, it has been traditionally approached through Lidar Valley intersected by the Lidar nallah (riveulet). On this route the pilgrims approach the holy cave from Pahalgam in South Kashmir and cover around 46 kms while passing through Chandanwari, Pissu Ghati, Seshnag and Panchantarni.

Another shorter route is from Baltal located on Srinagar Leh highway. It is just around 15 kms with some stretches which rise and fall steeply. In the past this route was used in early summers but sometimes it became impossible to use this route due to melting of snow. However, with passage of time, things have improved and movement on either of the routes has become comparatively easy.

Puranmashi is not normally related with Lord Shiva, but the association of Shrawan Purnamashi (July-August) with Amarnath pilgrimage is because of the glimpse of fully developed “Ice Lingam” and relatively a favourable weather during this period to trek through the mountains to reach the cave.

Historians differ on the origin of Shri Amarnath yatra, while some say it was there from historic times with brief disruption, while others say it began with the discovery of the holy cave by Maliks or Muslim Shepherds in 18th or 19th century. The historians are of the view that the Amarnath pilgrimage existed for thousands of years. Bringesha Samhita, Nilmat Puran, Kalhan’s Rajtarengeni etc., have references to this effect. Bringesha Samhita narrates some of the important places where the pilgrims while going to Shri Amarnath Cave had to perform religious rituals. They included Anantnaya (Anantnag), Mach Bhawan (Mattan), Ganeshbal (Ganeshpora), Mamleshwar (Mamal), Chandanwari (2,811m), Shushram Nagar (Sheshnag) 3454m, Panjtarangeni (Panjturni) 3845m and Amravati.

Kalhana’s Rajtarungini Tarang II has the legend of Kashmir ruler Samdimat (34 BC- 17 AD), who as a great devotee of Shiva “used to worship linga of snow above the forests, which is not found anywhere in the world except during the delightful Kashmir summers”. Kalhana has also mentioned that Sushram Naga (Sheshnag) is seen by pilgrims to Areshvara (Amarnath) to this day (i.e., 1148-49 A.D.). Nilmat Puran has reference to Amreshvara suggesting that the Shrine was known in 6th/7th century.

One of the greatest Muslim rulers of Kashmir, Zain-ul-abdin (1420-70 A.D.), fondly remembered by Kashmiris as “Badshah”, visited the Amarnath cave which has been documented by his chronicler Jonaraja. Akbar’s historian Abul-Fazal (16th century) in Ain-i-Akbari” recorded, “Amarnath is considered a shrine of great sanctity. When the new moon rises from her throne of rays, a bubble as it were of ice is formed in the cave which daily increases little by little for 15 days till it is formed higher than two yards…... With waning of moon, likewise begins to decrease till no trace of it remains when the moon disappears”.

Vincent A smith, author of the Oxford History of India, while editing 2nd edition of Bernier’s book commented that the cave “full of wonderful coagulations is the Amarnath cave where blocks of ice stalagmites formed by dripping water from the roof are worshipped by the Hindus, who resort here as images of Shiva”. Vigne Bernier Montgomery in his book ‘Travels in Kashmir, Ladakh and Iskardu” (1842) says that the ceremony at the cave of Amarnath takes place on 15th Sawan and not only Kashmir Hindus but also from Hindustan of every rank and cast “can be seen travelling up the valley of Lidar towards the celebrated cave”.

Swami Vivekananda undertook pilgrimage to Amarnath cave on 8th August in 1898 and later recounted, “I thought the Ice Lingam was Shiva himself and there were no thievish Brahmins, no trade, nothing wrong. It was all worship. I have never seen anything so beautiful, so inspiring and enjoyed any religious place so much”.

In his book “Valley of Kashmir”, Lawrence says that Brahmins from Mattan would join the Amarnath pilgrims and later at Batkut, Maliks would take charge as they were responsible for maintaining the track, act as guide, carry the sick, old and ensure safety of life and belongings of pilgrims. For this they received one-third of the offerings at the Shrine. Brahmins of Mattan, Darmarth Trust (a religious body looking after various Hindu shrines in Jammu Kashmir) and Giri Mahants of Amritsar, who carry the “Chhari Mubarik” at the head of the main pilgrimage to this day since the advent of Sikh rule in Kashmir, receive the remaining share of offerings.

The historians supporting the historicity of Amarnath pilgrims say that the Yatra may have been discontinued for a period for about three hundred years from the middle of 14th century owing to turbulence following foreign invasions of Kashmir valley and migrations of Hindus from there. Some historians say the cave was rediscovered in the summer of 1869 and the first formal pilgrimage to the holy cave was organized three years later in 1872 accompanied by the Maliks.

Despite militancy during the past two decades in Kashmir valley, Amarnath Yatra has been going on uninterrupted. This year itself more than 1.7 lakh pilgrims had already visited the cave till the writing of this article. This has been possible mainly due to the cooperation and support of local Muslims to the Yatra.

Whatever the historians may have to say about the historicity of Amarnath Yatra, the fact is that it not only a great bondage between the Hindu pilgrims and local Muslims who facilitate the Yatra, but has maintained a deep relationship in thought and aspiration between Kashmir and other parts of India that has existed for thousands of years. Nationally revered Tamil poet Subramanya Bharathi was so much inspired by this bondage that he proclaimed Kashmir as the Crown of Mother India and Kanyakumari as lotus at her feet.

Munger Or Maudagalyagiri

The territory included within the district of Munger once formed part of the Madhya Desha or Midland of the first Aryan settlers. It has been identified with Modagiri, a place mentioned in the Mahabharata, which was the capital of a kingdom in Eastern India near Vanga and Tamralipta. It was also known as Maudagalyagiri after Maudgalya, a disciple of Buddha, who converted a rich merchant of this place into Buddhism.

 

 At the dawn of history, the present site of the town was apparently comprised within the kingdom of Anga, the capital of which was at Champa near Bhagalpur. Anga was the country to the east of Magadha and west of the chieftains who dwelt in the Rajmahal hills. A portion of the west of the present district was included within the limits of the kingdom of Magadha. Anga comprised the old districts of Bhagalpur and Munger and also extended northwards up the river Kaushiki and included the western portion of the district of Purnea. 

 

The area lying north of the river Ganges was known as Anguttarap. Kashyapa Vibhandaka had his hermitage on the river Kaushiki. His son Rishyasringa was beguiled by the courtesans of Anga into a boat and brought down the river to the capital - Modagiri and Kaushiki Kachcha- that had rulers who are distinguished from Karna, whose realm (Anga) clearly lay between the Magadhans and the Parvatavasins.

 

 The Anga dominion at one time included Magadha and the Shanti-parva of the epic Mahabharata refers to an Anga King who sacrificed at Mount Vishnupada. In the epic period Modagiri finds mention as a separate State. The success of Anga did not last long and about middle of the sixth century B.C. Bimbisara of Magadha is said to have killed Brahmadatta, the last independent ruler of ancient Anga. Henceforth Anga becomes an integral part of the growing empire of Magadh.

Significance of Good Friday

The Good Friday is traditionally celebrated as a day on which Jesus was crucified. It comes on the Friday immediately preceding Easter Sunday. The Christians honour and memorize the event, passion and suffering through which Jesus went through. Many Christians spend the day fasting, offer prayers, perform meditation and most often spend the day in repentance.


There are different opinions on this day. Some feel sorrow for the sufferings and even give pain to them selves while others understand that Jesus offered his life so that many people could be saved. It was not that his life was taken but he himself offered his life. Usually the holidays start from Good Friday and end on Easter Monday with rejoicing and celebrating Jesus' raising after the death.


Roman Catholics include specific prayers and devotional songs on this day as they memorize this special day traditionally. Usually in the evening Christ's death is remembered with sad and solemn prayers and prayers of thanksgiving. Good Friday is a moveable feast and there are many explanations why Good Friday is termed 'Good'.


The word 'good' was considered 'holy' in old English and so Good Friday is said Good. Also God had the last word through Christ's death and people were, actually, redeemed by the death of Jesus. This is also why it is good about this day.


The celebrations are different in different parts of the world and also the ways differ among various types of people. Catholics attend the Church and relive the fourteen Stations of the Cross. The Stations of the Cross are areas around the Church that depicts the ways through which Christ was taken along and the sufferings he went through. No mass is celebrated and there are special readings from Scripture.


There is a tradition in which crucifix is kissed and the cross is honoured and venerated. That day there is no candle burnt in front of the God which is always set burning to show that God is present everywhere. This day, according to this tradition, God is considered as not present. This is the only day when the candle is unlit and there is no mass in the church, according to Catholic tradition.


There are people who hold special church services from noon to three o'clock, which is believed to be the time when Christ was crucified. The focus is the seven last words of Christ. The lights are slowly dimmed and then finally darkness prevails in there. This ends with a loud noise and is considered as Jesus' last cries and the earthquake that had occurred at the time of his death.


People wear black clothes, cover the statues, pictures and crosses with black and unlit all the candles. Attend the church and say prayers. Memorize and honour Christ's death and sufferings and attend the services that are sober and solemn. Every Christian participates in the Holy Communion. Most of them believe that attending Stations of Cross as a part of Good Friday services where there are paintings and banners that depict scenes of the day of crucifixion and his betrayal to death. People sing hymns and prayers as they attend from one Station to another. Although the way of celebration is different in different parts of the world, the significance of Good Friday is that if Jesus had not suffered, his resurrection would not have saved the Christians.

  Dhanu Yatra:World's biggest open-air theatre

Odisha is considered as the land of colourful fairs and festivals. There are 13 festivals in 12 months of a year. In this plethora of festivals, Dhanu Yatra of Bargarh in Odisha is remarkably distinguished from rest in sense, style, grace and grandeur. It also happens to be a great mass festival. Every year in the month of Sagittarius, it is celebrated for eleven days of the month from the 5th day of the bright fortnight till the full moon day. It is believed to have started after harvesting season of 1947-48 soon after India's independence as a reflection of joyous atmosphere in the society for the end of British misrule. Since then it has become more popular all over the world with every passing year.

During the Dhanu Yatra, Bargarh city, about 330-km from Bhubaneswar, becomes Mathura, the river Jeera becomes river Yamuna and Ambapalli situated on the other side of Jeera becomes Gopapura. For all the eleven days, Bargarh city is transformed into a very big stage. The story of Maharaja (king) Kansa, his death and different acts of Lord Sri Krisha are enacted in 14 main places in Mathrua and 4 main places in Gopapura. Various episodes are organised at various places from sacred centres like temples to public places like ponds, rivers, cultural and commercial centres, transforms the entire locality into an open-air stage for the live show. All the people, including lakhs of outsiders, paying visit to the festival, become actors of the drama either assuming or pretending to be the subjects of Maharaja Kansa at Mathura and as friends or devotees of Lord Sri Krishna at Gopapura.

The social attachment of the people with Dhanu Yatra can be adjudged from the obedience of the orders of Maharaja Kansa not only at the erected stages of Raj Durbar, but everywhere the royal procession of Maharaja Kansa moves at conqueror. Everyone obliges to pay monetary fines or accepts mild physical punishments as a token of obedience. Similarly, Krishna and Balaram including their charioteer Akrura, whether at Gopapura or Mathura, are worshiped by the people in general as idols of God. Love of virtue springs up while thronging to welcome the chariot of Krishna-Balaram as if the God himself incarnated temporarily in the body of the actors.

The special factor about Dhanu Yatra is the enactment of the story of Lord Krishna in the form of drama by real actors and actresses. They deliver their dialogues of their own without any written . Here Maharaja Kansa does not remain confined to a character of arrogance. He moves around the city on the elephant from afternoon till evening. In the evening, he holds the court and the entertainment. Maharaja Kansa tries to mitigate the suffering of his citizens while moving around his kingdom, the Mathura. But once he comes to the court, he remains occupied with discussions with ministers to find ways to avert his prophesied death. He makes all kinds of plans to kill Sri Krishna. He dispatches various demons to Gopapura to eliminate Sri Krishna.

As all the demons were killed by Sri Krishna in Gopapura, Maharaja Kansa organises Dhanu Yatra in Mathura and his ex-minister Akrura is sent to Gopapura to bring Sri Krishna to Mathura. Finally, Sri Krishna comes to Mathura, kills all the wrestlers and the all powerful Maharaja Kansa. Maharaja Ugrasena regains power and becomes the king of Mathura, thus ending the eleven day long Dhanu Yatra. The actor playing the role of Maharaja Kansa visits Lord Jagannath (avatar of Sri Krishna) at Puri in Odisha after the Dhanu Yatra and ask the Almighty to forgive him for scolding him for all the eleven days of the fair.

In the age of modern society, when most of the old myths are losing power, Dhanu Yatra of Bargarh is considered to be an extension of the devotional religion of the traditional cult to a democratic mass culture.

Folk Paintings of India

Folk paintings of India has enriched our art heritage land civilization. A great merit of this feature is that it relates the folk paintings to the traditions and settings of the people who made them, where history, sociology and geography meet in a fruitful alliance. The architectural wonders of Orissa appears in the "pats" of Lord Jagannath: The ceremonial temper of Banaras is obvious in the paintings on the walls of its houses. The art of Rajasthan grew out of princely, warlike and chivalrous traditions. Gujrat a businesslike is approprately displayed by ‘Market scene’ in their folk paintings. In paintings from the Buddhist areas of North-East Frontier we see the fantastic imagination of people who live among great mountains and the vast forces of nature.

In colourful Bengal, the folk artist seems to have sought relief in sober subdued tones: in bare and arid Rajasthan he found contrast in exciting colour. The Himalayan painters liked soft, powdery shades. The Santal folk paintings are bright and simple, well adapted to their purpose, to cheer up their cottages.

Folk painting depends, of course, to some extent on the availability of appropriate materials. In Uttar Pradesh the smooth white-washed walls have provided a large canvas. In the Saora hills of Orissa the walls are washed with a red clay, and the paintings therefore are done on this in white and black. In Assam, the walls of village houses are generally of cane or bamboo, so wall painting is not found there; instead a tradition of painting on pith came into being, and there are paintings on leataher, on stiffened newspaper, on pottery or cloth.

Buddhist religious serolls are fairly common in Sikkim, Arunachal and other places in the North-Eastern states, specially in the Monpa country. Dragon painted on wood is a representative example of Monpa art: the theme is a traditional Buddhist one.

‘Manasa – Mangal’ is a favourite theme – ‘Manasa’, apparently the deity of the snakes, is the central figure with a whole host of subsidiary characters thrown in. The lines are bold and colours used on pith soak into the surface to give it an overall soft tone which is the special charm of paintings on pith. It is a unique folk art of Bengal.

In Bengal, paintings as a popular medium of cultural expression developed in comparative idependence from the conventions of temple art, and free from the influence of the royal court. In the painted scrolls and ‘pats’ of rural Bengal we have, in fact, one of the genuine folk traditions surviving down to the present century. In the villages of 24-Parganas, Bankura, Birbhum, Burdwan and Midnapore, one still meets the ‘patuas’ selling their ‘pats’ in village fairs. Painted usually on paper of the cheapest variety-sometimes even on old newspapers - the ‘jarano pats’ average twelve to fifteen feet in length and are one or two feet wide. Apart from pupular mythological stories, the theme sometimes is a condemnation of social injustice. Primary colours – yellow, red and blue - are generally used by the ‘patua’; sometimes also green and brown, all laid in flat washes.

The line drawing asserts its claims as a powerful medium of expression in the works of the folk artists from Kalighat who originally produced their paintings for mass sale to pilgrims thronging the Kali temple. The 18th and the 19th centuries were the golden age of Kalighat artist, the entire family participated in the execution of a painting: even the ladies were as dexterous as the men.

The Kalighat ‘patua’ worked on religious subjects; later, antagonized by growing influence of the Western artists, they made their art as powerful instrument of satire, to mock at Wersternization.

Celebrated painter Jamini Roy(1887-1972) expressed his views on ‘Kalighat pats’ : " A wrong notion prevails about what is patua-art. Many a one is inclined to identify it with the Kalighat-pats. Not that there is no truth whatsoever in such an idea, but the truth has really a very slender basis. During the early days of the growth of Calcutta as a city, a group of village craftsmen came to settle in Kalighat and went on with their paintings. They were essentially rustic artists: certain changes in their traditional work were, however, inevitable because of their contact with the urban life. They had to cater to urban taste and had their market in the city."

To Puri for centuries have flocked pilgrims from every corner of India, and they had to take back home a suitable memento – a Jagannatha ‘pat’ was the obvious choice, some time the pilgrim also buys playing cards and other pats of other familiar objects. These ‘pats’ were supplied by the Maharajas’, hereditary ‘Chitrakaras’(artists) who lived as some of them still do – close to the temple precincts.

Mithila is roughly the area covered by the districts of Darbhanga and Muzaffarpur, parts of Mongher, Bhagalpur and Saharsa. ‘Maithili’ is a distinct literary language and Mithila has an artistic tradition of its own as represented by the paintings done on mud-walls by its village women. Other women artists do same kind of artistic theme on thick paper and even on cloth. Some folk artists of Bihar also creates a variety of paintings which is called ‘ Madhubani’ arts.

‘Pahari’ paintings of Himachal Pradesh developed rapidly at the end of the 18th century and it was purely a princely art. The ‘Pahari’ painter drew his inspiration from the mythological legends as well as popular folk stories.

Folk paintings in Rajasthan developed primarily under feudal patronage. But there were also many anonymous painters who painted for a distinctly plebeian clientele.

In Gujrat, the Jain community played a very important role in the development of art, including painting. The tradition that had grown up over the ages in Gujrat was that the noble and the moneyed classes should establish libraries – Jain ‘Gyana Bharati’, they also commissioned artists to produce illuminated versions of the Jain sacred texts for those libraries.

‘Paithan’ which was known as ‘Pratisthana’ in the Godavari plateau in Deccan, in the 17th century it was also the home of a peculiar folk style of painting, with remarkable originality and boldness of brush-work.

The South had a tradition of temple murals executed by great rulers, of paintings in ‘Bhajanalayas’. Paintings of gods and goddesses on the small shrines of Tamilnadu and on the temple floors in Kerala done actually with coloured powders, have some of the vitality of folk paintings. But the flat leather cut-outs used for shadow plays in Andhra and Mysore are gorgeoulsy painted affairs of the exquisite craftsmanship. The simple themes of the shadow play, from the epics, have delighted the masses for centuries in south India.

HAMPI

Hampi, the seat of the great Pampapati or Virupaksha temple of Lord Siva, the patron-deity and family God of the Kings of Vijayanagar, stands on the southern bank of river Tungabhadra in the Bellary district and is about nine miles from the town of Hospet in Karnataka. It was the oldest and the most sacred temple of Vijayanagar. It has miraculously escaped destruction, which was the fate of Vijayanagar after the battle of Talikota in 1565 A.D.

This great and ancient temple of Hampi originally had a small village around it. Long before the grand Vijayanagar Empire, it was a spot where there was nothing but nature in one of her wildest moods. On one side there were huge boulders and lofty hills scattered and on the other there were green trees and grass. River Tungabhadra flowed nearby.

The majesty of huge tumbled boulders, the river, isolation, solitude and wild nature attracted a number of sages and ascetics to this spot. Sage Vidyaranya used the place for his meditation. Pampa is another name for the river Tungabhadra. Pampadevi is considered the daughter of Brahma and she performed penance on the Humakuta Hill. Visvesvara appeared before her and made her his consort. Deriving inspiration from the celebrated sage and philosopher, Madhava, Harihara and Bukka, two of the five sons of Sangama, laid the foundation of the city in 1336 A.D. and the kingdom of Vijayanagar was named after their Guru Vidyaranya. They made Pampapati or Virupaksha their patron deity and family god. On the northern bank of the river was the fort of Anegundi and Vijayanagar was on the southern bank. For about three hundred years Vijayanagar empire remained as a bulwark against the onrush of alien culture and ideas, and stood up in support of the traditional religion and culture of the country. Vijayanagar became the Dakshina Kasi and Virupaksha was famous as one of the 108 Divya Kshetras of Bharat. The first dynasty of Vijayanagar is named after Sangama, who was the father of Harihara I and Bukka 1.Bukka I was succeeded by Harihara II who assumed imperial titles. He is eulogized for making sixteen great gifts to various temples situated in places ranging from Kurnool to Kumbakonam. He extended his sway over the whole of South India. He was a devout worshipper of Lord Siva, Virupaksha, though tolerant of other faiths. There were constant fights between the Vijayanagar Empire and the Badami Kingdom. There were nine kings in his first Sangama dynasty which had come to power after the decline of Hoysalas and Yadavas and it remained in power from 1336 to 1486 A.D.The last Saluva ruler was deposed by Vira Narasimha, Narsa Naik’s son of the Taluva dynasty who was succeeded by his younger half-brother, Krishna Deva Raya, the greatest among Vijayanagar rulers and one of the most distinguished kings of India. In his reign, Vijayanagar Empire was at its zenith of glory and prosperity. He was a great patron of Sanskrit and Telugu literature and he himself wrote his great work Amuktamalyada in Telugu in which he refers to his other five works in Sanskirt. In his court there were eight famous poets called the Ashtagiggajas and the Poet Laureate was Peddana. Dhurjati was another famous poet. It is said that Krishna Deva Raya desired to know from other poets as to how it was that Dhurjati could bring extraordinary sweetness to his poetic compositions. One of the court poets, Tenali Ramakrishna, a humorous writer and the author of “Panduranga Mahatyam” investigated the “secret” an reported in the open court that the sweetness was traceable to the constant contact of Poet Dhurjati with the sweet lips of his mistress! On Krishna Deva Raya’s death, his half-brother Achyuta Raya ascended the throne.

After Achyuta Raya came Venkata Raya I and then Sadasiva Raya, but the power was wih Rama Raya, the Minister. Rama Raya was the virtual ruler and he possessed great abilities. He became over-confident and haughty and by his changing alliances, he alienated the sympathies of the people of his neighbouring states. The Muslim States of Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmednagar and Bidar formed a coalition; the long-standing hostility ended in a combined attack on Vijayanagar and on the 23rd January, 1665 A.D., the battle of Talikotta was fought near the villages of Raksas and Tagdi.

It resulted in the defeat of the Vijayanagar armies. Hussain Nizam Shah killed Rama Raya and the invading army enriched itself fabulously by plunder. The highly developed and magnificent city of Vijayanagar was systematically destroyed by the invading army. From the third day after the battle up to the next five months the destruction was carried out relentlessly and completely. “Never perhaps in the history of the world had such havoc been wrought and wrought so suddenly, on so splendid a city; teeming with a wealthy and industrious population in the full plentitude of prosperity one day, and on the next day seized, pillaged and reduced to ruins”.

The UNESCO reports – nestle within them almost every highlight of classical Indian architecture. Palaces, temples, marketplaces, watch towers, stables, baths and monoliths lie scattered amidst enormous boulders, which complement the rugged look and historic feel of the place. To complete the picture is the Tungabhadra river, its flow providing a much-needed sense of movement in the ambience that has remained frozen in time for long. Built as the capital of the Vijaynagar empire, Hampi has all the elements that would make any royal proud of his abode.
Horses, elephants and dancing girls carved in stone, musical pillars, cusped arches, a lotus-shaped fountain, a stepped water tank, an underground chamber, a massive chariot. The ruins that lay in about 25 sq km area elicit exclamations after every short distance. The Virupaksha Temple has a nine-tiered 50-metre gopuram. The Vithala temple has 56 stone pillars that produce musical notes when tapped. Then there is the 6.7 meter Narasimha monolith. The jewels may have been plundered, the city abandoned a couple of hundred years after it was founded, but the grandeur of the last Vijayanagar capital has to be seen to be believed even today.

Orissa Temples - Music On Stone

"Had the early European visitors reached Konark about the time they saw the Taj Mahal they would have placed Konark as one of the seven wonders of the world", observed an eminent art critic of Europe.

Sculptures in the temples of Orissa surely charm foreign visitors also. It is dsifficult to count how many temples Orissa has. Bhubaneswar is a city of temples and ruins. Orissa’s master architects and sculptures have left in Bhubaneswar magnificent temples, beauty of which has no parallel. And Konark perhaps is unique among Orissa’s glorious temples. Konark temple’s sculptures are living beauties in silence. Konark is a living testimony to the daring and the artistic sensibility of a race that once knew how to live, love, worship and create in heroic proportions.



The temple, which lies in a vast compound enclosed by a wall, is grandiose in proportion and daring in conception. It was built by King Narasimha Deva I who ruled Kalinga (present day Orissa) in the 13th Century. According to Abul Fazal, the court historian of Akbar the great Mughal emperor, its cost was defrayed by 12 years’ revenue of the province. The structure as a whole was conceived as the mythical chariot of the Sun-God borne on twenty-four wheels and drawn by seven horses. Every detail in the temple is subservient to that overriding idea, and no part, however exquisite its own beauty stands by itself. The beauty of the temple does not lie merely in its structural grandeur which is more or less conventional. It is the sculpture of Konark that constitutes a landmark in the development of Indian art. The walls of the Sun temple are covered with exuberant carving covering aspects of life. Every bit of the exterior is moulded and chiseled either in form of geometrical patterns, conventional foliage, or mythical animals and figures. The technique ranges from patterns cut with the minute precision of a cameo to powerful-modeled groups of colossal size.

The main theme of the sculpture is love. There are beautifully shaped figures in close embrace, dancing or making music. In female figures, feminine charms are so well depicted that the spectator is left speechless. On the roof-stand some of the finest sculptures are executed in India, girl musicians of heroic proportions accompanying the Sun-God’s chariot. These huge figures silhouetted against the sky and visible from long distances look like heavenly creatures. The seven horses of sun temple are believed to signify the seven days of the week, the twenty-four wheels 24 fortnights of the year, the eight spokes of each wheel 8 prahars (span of time) into which the ancient Indians divided the day.

At Konark, as also at Bhubaneswar and Puri, visitors find a large number of carvings and reliefs with an obvious erotic import. Same kind of erotic theme in sculptures can be seen in the temples of Khajuraho in Central India.

Broadly speaking, Orissa’s temples have many common features. They are mostly of sandstone. The stones are held together with iron clamps, the use of wood having been dispensed with. A typical temple consists of two essential structures, the deul (tower) and jagamohan (assembly hall). The deul is the sanctum where the deity is enshrined. It is a square structure surmounted by a curvilinear tower. Facing the deul, and communicating with it, is jagamohan, a square structure with a pyramidal roof. Occasionally, one or two more structures, such as the natyamandir (dance hall) and the bhogmandir (hall or offerings), were added in front of the jagamohan.

Bhubaneswar is one of the country’s oldest cities, Orissa’s master architects and sculptures have left in Bhubaneswar magnificent temples (8th to 13th century A.D.) the beauty of which has not been excelled any where in the country. Lingaraja temple in Bhubaneswar which dominates the temple city with its elegant, soaring 39m. high tower. It represents the quintessence of Orissan art. Human figures, especially the feminine form, are also a recurrent decorative motif. The supple grace of these life-like stone figures, draped in the flimsiest of silks and muslins and adorned with a variety of jewellery-all in stone evokes in beholder a feeling of great aesthetic pleasure which words can only inadequately express.

The smallest of the group, the Mukteswar is perhaps the loveliest, "a dream realised in sandstone". It has an eleven metre high tower and an elegant eight metre high jagamohan. The floral decorations in this temple are better executed than in most other temples and statuary is full of action. Kedareswar temple near a tank behind the Mukteswar, is 12m. high. The exact data of the Kedareswar temple is unknown, it is older than the great Lingaraja temple. The Parasurameswar temple is believed to be Bhubaneswar’s oldest temple (8th century A.D.).

One of the gems of Orissan art is the Rajarani temple, is set amidst paddy fields. About 17.7 m. in height its niches are filled with 0.9m high statues executed with a vigour one would think difficult to combine with the plastic quality that is associated with the art of stone carving in east India. The feminine form is delineated here in a variety of moods and attitudes. There are lovely slender-waisted, full-breasted woman in amorous dalliance, sporting with treees, taking off their anklets, caressing their pets or playing on instruments.

Other than those major masterpieces, temple Vaital and Ashoka’s rock edicts at Dhauli (3rd century before christ) should be mentioned. The rock caves of Udaigiri hills dated back 2nd century B.C. Rani Gumpha, Ganesh Gumpha and Hathi Gumpha have different style of sculptures.

Famous Jagannath temple of Puri was built between 8th and 12th century A.D. The Jagannath temple is lightly carved. Its tower rises 59m. from its base, impresses with its proportions and height rather than with its carvings. In the compound of Jagannath temple, scattered small temples have innumerable sculptures like Bhubaneswar and Konark.

In Aandre Malraux’s words, Orissa’s temples are voices in silence and songs on stone carving. French litterateur and art historian Mr. Malraux describes Orissa temples as rare heritage sites of this planet called earth.

In undertaking efforts to preserve the world’s cultural and natural heritage, the UNESCO has attempted to emphasise the link between culture and development. The UNESCO’s World Heritage Programme (1978) aims to protect historic sites and natural landmarks of outstanding universal significance.

India with its great variety of monuments and archeologtical sites has indeed a rich heritage. There are 16 world Heritage Monuments. And Sun Temple of Konark (Orissa) is one of them. It is maintained by the Archeological Survey of India.

The 1999’s October cyclone lashed out in the coastal Orissa, perturbed the beauty and elegance of Konark temple for a short while. Archeological Survey of India’s prompt and timely action has cleared all the difficulties in the temple site, and soon it became a tourists paradise again.

The Art and Culture of Islam in India

The text of the address of the Vice President of India Shri M. Hamid Ansari at the “International Seminar on Islamic Art and Culture” at Maulana Azad National Urdu University, Gachibowli, Hyderabad.

The Art and Culture of Islam in India

“I stand here with mixed emotions: happy to be amongst you, honoured by the invitation to speak on so weighty a subject, daunted by the enormity of the task, sobered by my own inadequacy. I therefore seek sustenance in two couplets that have remained a sound preamble down the ages:

Ba naam-e-Khudawand jaan aafarein

Hakim-e-sukhan dar zubaan aafarein

Khudawand bakhshanda-e-dastgeer

Karim–e-khata bakhsh pozish pazeer

In the name of the Lord, soul-creating

Wise One, speech-creating in the tongue!

Lord forgiving, apt to help

Generous, fault-forgiving, excuse accepting

The subject is vast, almost nebulous. The best that can be attempted is to touch upon some overarching themes. Islam has been a part of the Indian landscape for well over a millennium and has impacted on, and been impacted upon, in very many layers. A very good reason for it is the unique nature of Indian culture. The doyen of historians of an earlier era, Dr. Tara Chand of revered memory, delineated it with some precision:

Indian culture is synthetic in character. It comprehends ideas of different orders. It embraces in its orbit beliefs, customs, rites, institutions, arts, religions and philosophies belonging to strata of society in varying stages of development. It         eternally seeks to find a unity for the heterogeneous elements which make up its            totality. At worst its attempts end in mechanical juxtaposition, at best they succeed in evolving an organic system.

Historical record makes evident the absence of mechanical juxtaposition. Islam as a faith, as a body of ideas and practices, came to India through human interaction in different ways in different parts of the Sub-continent. This took place over time, and ‘in a manner that was beyond social and political control’. The unifying factor for the adherents of the new faith was a common allegiance to Islam. Beyond it, variations in doctrine and observances, and diversity in regional terms, remained; nor were the differences in rural–urban practices erased. Each left its imprint on art and culture.

II

A discourse on culture necessarily confronts definitional impediments. How do we define culture? One study compiled 164 definitions! For our purpose today we could accept the anthropologist Edward Taylor’s definition and consider culture to be ‘that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society’. Emanating from this, the art and culture of Islam in India could be taken to mean such contributions inspired, made, or cause to be made, by persons or groups living here and professing to belong to Islamic faith.

It is known that within a few centuries from its inception Islam became a world religion with its adherents living in different countries imbibing, and shaping, the local environment. The historian Ira Lapidus has neatly characterized this interaction as ‘a dialogue between the realm of religious symbols and the world of everyday reality…of interaction between Islamic values and historical experiences of Muslim peoples that has shaped the formation of a number of different but interrelated Muslim societies’.  

The nature of this interaction also depended on the type of contacts and the cultural level of the societies concerned. In regard to the first, there is sufficient evidence to show that Indians, particularly those all along the west coast, were familiar with various communities in western Asia in the period before the advent of Islam. There were extensive trading ties with and through the lands of Arabia, Persia, the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and beyond. Transient traders as well as settled communities were a frequent occurrence. The rise of a centralized state in the wake of the early Islamic expansion gave a considerable impetus to existing interaction.

India, therefore, was a known land, sought after for its prosperity and trading skills and respected for its attainments in different branches of knowledge. Baghdad became the seeker, and dispenser, of Indian numerals and sciences. The Panchatantra was translated and became Kalila wa Dimna. Long before the advent of Muslim conquerors, the works of Al-Jahiz, Ibn Khurdadbeh, Al-Kindi, Yaqubi and Al-Masudi testify to it in ample measure. Alberuni, who studied India and Indians more thoroughly than most, produced a virtual encyclopedia on religion, rituals, manners and customs, philosophy, mathematics and astronomy. He commenced his great work by highlighting differences, but was careful enough ‘to relate, not criticize’.     

For our purpose today and given the time constraints, I shall opt for some selectivity in the choice of impact areas, and restrict my observations to the most noticeable ones: to architecture and painting in the realm of art proper and to history, literature, religious and philosophical speculation and Sufism in the wider area of culture.

This discourse took shape through rulers and the ruling class, scholars and intellectuals, and all those who interacted with and influenced the masses in general.

III

Historians have shed much light on the essential features of the Muslim rule and the ruling classes. In the first place, the State was not theocratic notwithstanding the fact that throughout the medieval period the rulers in Delhi and in many other kingdoms were Muslim; they however ‘paid scant attention to Islamic concepts of the State’. Kingship was absolute rather than conditional; governance was conducted through state-made regulations (zawabit) and not on the principles of sharia. The nobility (with a few exceptions) was a hierarchy of salaried officials. Over time, the imprint of Indian social organization was clearly visible. Social interaction at different levels, and within those levels, diluted rigid norms and induced adaptability. Creativity followed.

One unavoidable consequence of the capture of authority anywhere is to reflect it physically. The mosque and the tomb in the religious domain and the palace, pavilions, town gates, gardens and landscape architecture in the secular domain thus became reflective of the new, changing, reality. So towards the close of the twelfth century India saw the arrival of a totally distinct tradition of architecture. Its major characteristics, in the words of Professor Irfan Habib were:

“…the use of arch, vault and dome, and the application of lime cement; it could achieve in consequence a lightness and grace that the earlier trabeate construction could not easily match. Its love of light and space and ‘simple severity’ seems to stand in sharp contrast to ‘plastic exuberance’ of the earlier Indian tradition”.

This tradition of distinctive style evolved over a period of four centuries and produced regional variants. Competent observers have noted that in the Moghul period “the combination of scale, detail and good taste was sometimes breadth-taking and has seldom been surpassed.” The mosques and tombs of that era, as also the landscape architecture in the shape of ornamental gardens, are too well known to be mentioned individually; their grandeur immortalizes the architectural and building skills of the planners, engineers and craftsmen.

Provincial styles in architecture also blossomed. Ahmadabad and Mandu were distinctive. The Qutubshahi forts, mosques and monuments in the vicinity of the city of Hyderabad, and the Charminar, are too well known to this audience to be dilated upon. Scholars like Percy Brown have dwelt in detail on the stylistic evolution in this period.      

Painting was another area of excellence. The Ajanta frescos are reflective of the high technical and artistic quality attained in the pre-Muslim period. Humayun, during his exile in Persia, developed a taste for Persian paintings and was able to bring back masters like Abdus Samad. The Moghul style, in the words of Annemarie Schimmel, “developed from the interaction of the refined Persian style and the strong, lively, vision of the Hindu artists”; its evolution is well reflected in the miniatures of the Tutinama and the Hamzanama. It reached its peak in the reigns of Jahangir and Shahjahan. They, like Akbar, regarded painting as a means of bringing historical and romantic texts vividly to life. Jahangir in particular used paintings as a guide to physiognomy, to enable him recognize and assess nobles and as a scientific instrument to study flora and fauna. He mentions in his Memoirs the names of Abul Hasan and Ustad Mansur; their respective titles, Nadir-uz-zaman and Nadir-ul-Asr, speak for themselves. He also dwells on his own expertise on the subject in words that need to be quoted without abridgement:

“As regards myself, my liking for painting and my practice in judging it have arrived at such a point that when any work is brought before me, either of deceased artists or of those of present day, without the name being told me, I say on the spur of the moment that it is the work of such and such a man. And if there be a picture containing many portraits, and each face by the work of a different master, I can discover which face is the work of each of them. If any other person has put in the eye or the eyebrow of a face, I can perceive whose work the original face is, and who has painted the eyes and the eyebrows.”

Yet another area of excellence was calligraphy. Suspicion of figurative art as idolatrous led to it; thus abstract depictions become a major form of artistic expression in Islamic cultures, especially in religious contexts. Fine handwriting was also regarded as an essential accomplishment for a noble man and “aesthetics was made an aspect of sovereignty.” The emperors were not merely admirers of calligraphy, they were also practitioners. The Moghal artists like their Ottoman counterparts, developed new variations and formed pictures and figures out of words.

An impetus to the writing of history is particularly noticeable. In the period prior to the twelfth century there was, in the words of Narayanan Bandyopadhyaya, “a lack of recorded history”, an exception to it being Kalhana’s history of Kashmir. In the subsequent five centuries historical writings flourished. The names are too many to be mentioned here. An early example is Ali bin Hamid Kufi’s Chachnama. Much more followed, in the pre-Moghal and Moghal periods. The wealth of material compiled by Jjuzjani, Barani, Abul Fazl, Badauni, Qazwini, Khafi Khan and others have made possible comprehensive study of that period. Equally significant are the autobiographies of rulers; the most prominent of these were the Babur Nama and Tuzk-i-Jahangiri. Gul Badan Begum’s Humanyun Nama could be counted in the proximate category.

Belief, consciousness and practice became a particularly rich area of interaction. On one side high value was placed on orthodoxy “because it maintained the identity of a community against other communities and prevented an assimilation that could lead to the community disintegrating and being absorbed by others.” On the other, and living in a non-homogenous social milieu, the pious often communicated values through personal practice. In this sense the values of faith, though not its theological content, reached a wider circle of the public. The popularity of different sufi personalities is evidence enough of their reach. Thus there is merit in Professor Mujeeb’s observation that “Sufism took Islam to the masses and in doing so it took over the enormous and delicate responsibility of dealing at a personal level with a baffling variety of problem.”

Scholars have analyzed the socio-cultural role of the sufi dargahs in the cultural integration of the religious communities. The sufi trends sought commonalities in spiritual thinking. One example of it is Dabistan-i-Mazahib, a mid-seventeenth century work believed to have been written in Srikakulam (present day Andhra Pradesh) and described by an eminent scholar as “the greatest book ever written in India on comparative religion.” Dara Shukoh went further in his Majmu’-al Bahrain, gave a Vedantic view of Universe and Truth and concluded “that the differences between Islam and Hinduism were merely verbal.”

Alongside, the influence of Islam can be discerned in the vocabulary of preachers and saints of other faiths and Bhakti traditions.

The pattern of convergence or parallelism has been traced with precision by many scholars; their judgment is that some Islamic precepts and many Muslim practices seeped into the interstices of the Indian society and gave expression to a broader and deeper unity of minds expressive of the Indian spiritual tradition.

This tradition was aptly summed up by Allama Iqbal in his poem Hindustani Bachon Ka Qaumi Geet.

IV

To conclude, I can do no better than to go back to Dr. Tara Chand’s classic work Influence of Islam on Indian Culture written in 1922 and cite a telling passage:

“It is hardly possible to exaggerate the extent of Muslim influence over Indian life in all departments. But nowhere else is it shown so vividly and so picturesquely, as in customs, in intimate details of domestic life, in music, in the fashion of dress, in the ways of cooking, in the ceremonial of marriage, in the celebration of festivals and fairs, and in the courtly institutions and etiquette of Marathi, Rajput and Sikh princes. In the days of Babar the Hindu and Muslim lived and thought so much alike that he was forced to notice their peculiar “Hindustani way”; his successors so gloriously adorned and so marvelously enriched his legacy that India might well be proud today of the heritage which they in turn left behind.”(pp 141-142)  

        

One last word about this venue; perhaps accidental, but altogether appropriate, a seat of learning, associated with the name of a personality who embodied in his person and his work the ethos and apogee of Indo-Islamic culture.

The Indian Theatre Tradition

The Indian theatre has a tradition going back to at least 5000 years. The earliest book on dramaturgy anywhere in the world was written in India. It was called Natya Shastra, i.e., the grammar or the holy book of theatre by Bharat Muni. Its time has been placed between 2000 B.C. to 4th Century A.D. A long span of time and practice is needed for any art or activity to form its rules and notifications. Therefore, it can be said with assurance that to have a book like Natya Shastra, the Indian theatre must have begun long, long before that if we go back to historical records, excavations and references available in the two great epics The Ramayana and The Mahabharata .

Theatre in India started as a narrative form, i.e., reciting, singing and dancing becoming integral elements of the theatre. This emphasis on narrative elements made our theatre essentially theatrical right from the beginning. That is why the theatre in India has encompassed all the other forms of literature and fine arts into its physical presentation: Literature, Mime, Music, Dance, Movement, Painting, Sculpture and Architecture - all mixed into one and being called ‘Natya’ or Theatre in English.

Here it can be said that all the ancient traditions in the world - whether Eastern or Western - present almost the same picture of the theatre. On a superficial overview of both the traditions, they may sound similar in their exterior or physical manifestations but if we go deeper into the philosophy and outlook of both the worlds, it will be easier to understand that both of them are poles apart in their basic nature. The western philosophy of life is deep-rooted in the belief that there is no life after death whereas the Indian philosophy, especially the Hindu doctrine, sees life in a continuity, i.e., there is no end even after death.

Life keeps on moving as a circular activity. Theatre in the West presents life as it is whereas in India it presents life as it should be. In other words, this can be explained like this : Life in the West has been portrayed nearer to realism whether in theatre or other arts but in India it has been illustrated more in idealistic terms. This has been so right from the beginnings of the theatre in both the hemispheres.
Phases

After understanding this basic nature of Indian theatre, we can elaborate further on its development in India. Roughly it can be divided into three distinctive phases: the classical period; the traditional period and the modern period.

Phase I includes the writing and practice of theatre up to about 1000 A.D., almost based on rules, regulations and modifications handed by Natya Shastra. They apply to the writing of plays, performance spaces and conventions of staging plays. Playwrights such as Bhasa, Kalidasa, Shudraka, Vishakhadatta and Bhavabhuti contributed in a great measure through their dramatic pieces in Sanskrit. They based their plots on sources like the epics, history, folk tales and legends. The audience was already familiar with the story. Therefore, a theatre language required a visual presentation through gestures, mime and movement. The actor was supposed to be well-versed in all the fine arts. In a way, it was a picture of total theatre. The noted German playwright and director, Brecht, evolved his theory of ‘Epic Theatre’ and concept of ‘Aliegnation’ precisely from these sources.

Phase II involves that practice of theatre which was based on oral traditions. It was being performed from about 1000 A.D. onwards upto 1700 A.D. Even today it continues almost in every part of India. Emergence of this kind of theatre is linked with the change of political set up in India as well as the coming into existence of different regional languages in all parts of the country. As the languages themselves were taking their birth around 1000 A.D. it was too early to expect any writing in those languages. That is why this whole period is known as folk or traditional, i.e., theatre being handed over from generation to generation through an oral tradition. Another major change also took place with this kind of traditional theatre.

The classical theatre which is based on Natya Shastra was much more sophisticated in its form and nature and totally urban-oriented whereas this traditional theatre evolved out of rural roots. Though other elements of theatre remained almost the same, i.e., use of music, mime, movement, dance and narrative elements. This later theatre was more simple, immediate and improvisational even to the extent of being contemporary. Morever, whereas the classical theatre was almost similar in its presentation in all parts of India at a particular time, the traditional theatre took to two different kinds of presentational methods - all the folk and traditional forms in northern India are mainly vocal, i.e., singing and recitation-based like Ramlila, Rasleela, Bhand Nautanki and Wang without any complicated gestures or movements and elements of dance.

Phase III is again linked with a change in the political set up in India —— this time an outside force coming from the West. The time span of about 200 years under the British rule brings the Indian theatre into direct contact with the western theatre. For the first time in India, the writing and practice of theatre is geared fully towards realistic or naturalistic presentation. It is not as if realism or naturalism was totally absent in our tradition. It was always present as also envisaged in Natya Shastra through concepts of Lokdharmi, i.e., a style of presentation connected with day-to-day gestures and behaviour and Natyadharami, - i.e., a style more and more presentational and theatrical in nature. But the stories used were invariably from the same sources. In the modern theatre the story also changed its nature. Now it is no more woven around big heroes and gods, but has become a picture of common man.

In a way this is the complete picture of the Indian theatre from the ancient time up to the present. As we have already seen, the theatre in contemporary India is a combination of the three different phases of its evolution illustrated in its historical perspective. But it has never been professional in the true sense of the world, i.e., people have not been entirely dependant on the theatre for their livelihood right from the beginning. Though it seems that the theatre in India has been a continuous activity,yet in reality it has not been so. It has always been a part of festivals or such other occasions which are related to entertainment. At the most, theatre used to be performed between October and March - only for six months even by the so-called commercial or professional companies.

In the rest of the year, the people remained engaged either in agriculture or other vocations. This kind of set up creates a big problem for the Indian theatre. It has not yet become a part and practice of our life as in the West. Even in States like West Bengal and Maharashtra, where theatre is very prolific, none of the performers is totally devoted to the theatre. They are involved in some job or the other during daytime and only in the evenings they come to rehearse or perform. The concept of professional repertory companies in India is a recent one. How can theatre become a profession for an Indian actor and theatre worker? This is the biggest question. How can it provide him his bread and butter as well as opportunities to practise his art?
Identity

Another question relates to the identity of Indian theatre today. When the theatre was being performed in one single language like Sanskrit, it had a national identity of its own. But today the picture is completely changed. India is a vast country with 22 languages and as many different cultures. It is not like any Western country where the language are culture are one and, therefore, the theatre can be identified immediately with these elements.

In India, the concept of National Theatre has to be seen purely in regional terms. All the regions have their own language,history and culture and their theatre is also deeply rooted in those circumstances. Therefore, sometimes it becomes a problem of choosing any particular form or region. Does it give a complete picture of Indian character, culture and civilization? That is why over the last 30 to 40 years, there has been a search for its true and authentic form which may represent the aspirations of Modern India as well as a continuity of its traditions.
Changes
The exodus from the theatre to films is not a new phenomenon. But of late, television, video, film and the satellite channels have attracted the maximum number of people from the theatre to these options because of more money, glamour and market opportunities. As a result, theatre activities have suffered a severe setback in the last 15 years or so. The situation, however, has started changing slowly again. The audience appears to be fed up with the small screen. Theatre being a live and direct medium and always operating on human level with its audience, can never die. Even after innumerable obstacles and upheavals in history, it has always emerged a winner in the end.

Folk Dances:Badhai (Madhya Pradesh), Dhali (West Bengal), Kalbelia (Rajasthan) and Kaavadi Chindu (Tamil Nadu)

Badhai (Madhya Pradesh), Dhali (West Bengal), Kalbelia (Rajasthan) and Kaavadi Chindu (Tamil Nadu) are a few of these folk dances that make us feel proud of our rich cultural heritage.

Badhai is a typical folk dance of Bundelkhand. The majority of the people of Bundelkhand believe in goddess Sheetala at the time of calamities such as flood, sickness and so on. On occasions like marriage or the birth of son, they beseech the goddess for her help and blessings and if their prayer is granted or wish fulfilled, both men and women go to goddess Sheetala and in tune with the rhythm of the folk musical instrument they perform various steps. This particular rhythm is also called "Badhai" and when it is played, men as well as animals are thrilled and they all start dancing. Even today one can come across in many villages, the mare (female horse) used for Badhai dance.

Dhali is another heroic folk dance of West Bengal. It originated and developed during the reign of Raja Pratapaditya. After winning the battle, the fatigued and exhausted soldiers started dancing with swords and shields in order to inspire themselves for the next war. Today this dance form has become modified with the participation of both men and women.

Kalbelia is a nomadic group from Rajasthan whose primary occupation was rearing snakes - extracting and trading in snake venom. ‘Been’ and ‘Daf’ are the traditional instruments of these people belonging to the ‘Nath’ sect. During social and ceremonial occasions folk songs are sung and the women dance inspired by the rhythmic beat of the ‘daf’ and the plaintive notes of the ‘been’ which highlights the unparalleled virtuosity of the dancers often reminiscent of the graceful and supple movements of the snake.

Kaavadi Chindu is a folk dance of Tamil Nadu. The devotees of Tamil God "Muruga" carry "Kaavadi" on their shoulder during temple festivals and they dance according to the rhythm of songs sung on God. The Kaavadi is made of wood and peacock feathers are tied at both ends. The Kaavadis are usually decorated with colourful clothes and the other instruments used are Thavil, Nadaswaram and Thappu.

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Chita - A Folk Art Of Orissa

Come festive days and the womenfolk in Orissa get busy decorating their houses to welcome gods and goddess by designing alpana or jhoti or chita on the floor of the house. It is an age-old belief that the chita invokes blessing of various gods. The chita is believed to have an aesthetic form that symbolises the aspects of cosmic order. The evolution of an intricately designed chita over the years is undeniably an invaluable gift to the folk art and culture of Orissa.

The culturally rich Orissa observes thirteen festivals in twelve months. The chita is a very common feature of these festivities, especially in the rural areas. As the sophisticated metropolitan pays a handsome amount in buying precious paintings for the interior decorations, the women in rural Orissa draw the chita for decoration purpose. Their unrelenting efforts over the years have brought the genre of finesse to this folk art. The sketch-model of certain kinds of chita have become the paradigm for a novice in the field.

The most common and simple raw material used for making the chita are rice grain powder or chalk powder. Sometimes, it is mixed with water to form a water-dye. The fluid material is called as Pithau. The artist well-manipulates pithau to make the desired designs and motifs on the floor. The fingers are used for the purpose. Brushes and sieves of different models are now widely used, thereby, saving much of the time without compromising the quality of the output. The powder or the pithau are sifted through the sieves to sketch out the delicate designs of the chita. Many innovative methods, using different brushes and raw materials, have been evolved . Another way practised by skilled women is the use of coconut leaf and gums of mangoes. A reed of the coconut leaf is split at the middle and then a small and thin stick is inserted through the split. After mixing the Chalk powder with gum obtained from mangoes, the stick is dipped in it and the Chita is drawn.

The art is the spontaneous expression of the artist. Though there are certain fixed models of motifs and designs of chita to invoke blessings of various gods and goddesses, the innovative mind of the artist knows no bounds. There are more than 70 models of chita meant for different purposes. Most of the chita are lotus shaped. The drawings of the conch, the hammer, the discuss, the alata chamar, the chatra, the feet of the goddess Laxmi are the commonly used designs. Footmarks are painted from the door steps to the place of worship as if goddess Mahalaxmi has entered the house.

The lotus chita is painted on the walls of the room where the goddess is worshipped on all thursdays of Margasira. Most of the chita meant for goddess Laxmi are painted on south facing walls of the house at the beginning of Chaturmasi (four months of the rainy season). Colours are, sometimes, added to the chita. For example, the Khamba Mandala chita is painted with five colours to invoke the blessings of Mahalaxmi in the month of Aswin.

The Dasa Padma Mandal Chita is an assemblage of lotuses and is painted on the floor of the room with five colours during the Chandan Jatra or Snana Purnami - a festival held in the month of May. Besides these lotus shaped chitas, several types of chitas are drawn on the floor and the walls. The Jhaiki Jumpa chita is painted on the walls of the room where god Prajapati is worshipped during the marriages and sacred ceremonies. The Erundi Chita is also one of the delicately designed chita invariably painted by the brahmins at the door sills. The Bela Patri Mandal Chita shows the concurrence of the leaves of the Woodapple tree and is drawn on Shivratri, a festival on the night of the fourteenth day of Phalguna.

Rural women have been showing their artistic skills since time immemorial through this folk art. The chita has been regarded as an exclusively women’s art. All festivities and cultural programmes in Orissa witness the sporting up of women - the old and the young, engaged in drawings and designing the kinds of chita meant for the occasion.

Oriya women, driven by the urge of a deep and passionate involvement with this aesthetic form, are not only engaged in the ‘interior decoration’ of their houses, but also symbolically participate in the esoteric acts of realizing the infinite dimensions of the cosmic order. To keep this traditional art live, the hope lies in those modern- day- paintings that have come up from the very traditional art of the chita, blended with skills and innovations of the artists.

Lord Ganesha In Art And Culture

Lord Ganesha is an adorable God of the Hindu mythology. Almost all Hindu religious ceremonies begin with Ganesh Bandana : Om Sree Ganeshaya Nama. After Ganesh bandana priest performs rituals and pujas.

Ganesha is a god of success, prosperity and happiness. A Hindu shop, business or a trading centre must have an idol of Ganesha which is daily worshipped. Khero Khata, a red cloth bound account book must bear in its first page a mark of Ganesha symbol, a prayer of Ganesha inscribed on the front page of the account book in a symbolic manner. In average Hindu houses, an image of Ganesha-idol, icon, at least a calendar bearing Ganesha image is a common sight. There are some exceptions no doubt.

Many big business houses display in the entrance hall a replica of Ganesha, often a full figure Ganesha by an eminent sculptor or artists like Jamini, Roy, Hussain, Bikash Bhattacharya, Ganesh Pyne and many other illustrious painters of India.

Dancers and singers of Indian classical dance and music begin with Ganesh bandana – prayer of Ganesha and then the artist performs the final recitals. In literature or in drama performance Ganesha is always remembered for the final success. Lord Ganesha is also considered in Hindu mythology a patron of literature, art and culture.

Ganesha, literally the lord of Ganas (people) is the most universally adored of all the Brahmanical Gods, and his images are found in practically every part of India. The popularity of this deity is extended to Nepal, Bangladesh, Java, Cambodia, Indonesia, Thailand and his worship was not unknown in Tibet, Myanmar, China, Japan, Afghanistan, even in parts of Central Asia. The God has been conceived as Vighneswara, the lord of overcoming obstacles, Vighnantaka, the remover of calamities, Siddhidata, the bestower of success and the divine scribe which gained him the reputation as patron of letters.

The great Shaivite cave temple of Elephanta, near Mumbai dates back between 635 century A.D to eighth century A.D. The main panel of stone carvings representing Shiva as the lord of Dancers, is much better preserved. Above him is a very well preserved image of the elephant-headed Ganesha too. This figure of Ganesha is unique in all respect, it has a dancing posture and an axe in its right hand.

In Bengal and in the eastern part of India, Durga Puja is a popular community festival in autumn season. Maharashtra celebrates Ganesha Chaturthi/Ganapati Puja in the month of Bhadra/September, a popular festival with much fanfare along with popular games etc. Ganapati Bapa in Maharashtra, chanted by thousand of devotees during immersions of the idols in unending processions in the rainy season, attracts lakhs of spectators. Mumbai city’s Juhu beach along witnesses nearly six thousand Ganapati image immersion. Other sea beaches and rivers of Maharashtra having immersions of Ganapati images in different sizes, shapes, in different types of figures, all are artistically crafted and designed. Ganesha Chaturthi, Ganapati Puja as a community worship, a mass festival was introduced in Maharashtra by Lok Manya Bal Gangadhar Tilak in the first decade of the twentieth century. Ganapati puja festival attracts tourists from abroad and other states of India.

Businessmen, at large, generally has a special fascination for Ganesha, because he is a god of success and prosperity. But people in the field of art, culture and letters too worship Lord Ganesha as the siddhidata (giver of success). In dian craftsmen have produced idols, icons or images of Ganesha in different shapes for the last several centuries. India’s ethnical tribal art and crafts are considered to be primitive, for example Dokra or Dhokra art. Mainly brass metal art objects, figure of mythological personage, animal, brids crafts are made in dariapur village (Bankura district), Medinipore in West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. Dokra craftsmen create wonderful Ganesh along with other mythological gods-goddesses and animal figures.

Terracotta Ganesha figures were found through archaeological excavation in many parts of India. Temples in Bengal have a large collection of terracotta Ganesha in the districts of Howrah, Hooghly, Burdwan, Birbhum and Bankura. Bishnupur in Bankura district is famous for terracotta horse, other animal figures along with the terracotta Ganesha. These terracotta horses and Ganesha are displayed as an art object in many drawing rooms of urban cities in our country. Terracotta horses and Ganeshas are export items. These terracotta items are usually produced by adivashis and jother rural artisans of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.

South Indian woodcraft artisans present Ganesha in different moods and in shapes. Sandalwood Ganesha figure are crafted by traditional artisans of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu for several centuries from now. Ivory works on Ganesha and elephant executed by fine craftsmen of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala are collectors – item all over the world. Antique dealers all over the world will vouchsafe popularity of ivory works of Ganesha.

Some wooden figures of Ganesha are found in Orissa. Orissa’s soft stone and hard stone Ganeshas are crafted by local artisans around Puri temple as well as around Bhubneswar and Cuttack. For the last one decade Ganesha painting, drawing or sculpture have invaded most art galleries of Chennai, Mumbai, Calcutta and Delhi. Several celebrated artists all over the country are now engaged in drawing, paintings and sculpturing Ganesha. They are generally commissioned by art gallery owners to produce more Ganesha in canvas, sculpture on stone or wood. Even terracotta and brass ganeshas have become a collector’s item.

Indian Museum of Calcutta has some wonderful collection of Ganesha at its archaeological gallery; it has two large size Ganesha statue from Java (Indonesia) dated eighth or ninth century A.D. besides two stone figures from Bihar, i.e. Chaturmukha Linga – eleventh century A.D. (2) Ganesha – eleventh century A.D. Yet another peculiar figure of Ganesha is a part of stone slab sculpture dated twelfth century A.D. (from Halebidu, Karnataka). Two south Indian bronze Ganeshas are displayed prominently in the same gallelry.